Table 1 Comparison of different nanomedicine approaches in modulating the immune response

NPs with surface modifications

Surface-modified NPs (e.g., PEGylation) evade immune recognition

Enhances circulation time; targeted delivery to immune cells

Minimizes off-target effects; enhances therapeutic efficacy

[43, 44]

NPs with immunomodulatory payloads

Loaded with agents (e.g., cytokines, antibodies) to modulate immune responses

Directly influences immune cell behavior; enhances responses

Mediated immune modulation; controlled release minimizes side effects

[45]

NPs as antigen delivery systems

Deliver antigens to APCs for immune activation or tolerance induction

Induces specific immune responses; enhances vaccine efficacy

Mimics natural antigen presentation; potential for targeted immunotherapies

[46,47,48]

NPs for immune cell engineering

Modify immune cells ex vivo with genetic material (e.g., siRNA, mRNA)

Engineered cells reintroduced to modulate immune responses

Personalized therapies; less immunogenic and more effective targeting of diseases

[49, 50]